Government, Local Government

Russia is divided into 89 administrative units: 21 republics, 6 territories known as krays, 10 autonomous national areas called okrugs, 49 oblasts (regions), 1 autonomous region, and the cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg, which have federal status. The republics are Adygea, Alania (North Ossetia), Altay, Bashkortostan, Buryatia, Chechnya, Chuvashia, Dagestan, Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Kalmykia, Karachay-Cherkessia, Karelia, Khakassia, Komi, Mari El, Mordovia, Sakha (Yakutia), Tatarstan, Tuva, and Udmurtia. The krays are Altay Territory, Khabarovsk Territory, Krasnodar Territory, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Primorye Territory (Maritime Territory), and Stavropol’ Territory. The autonomous okrugs, which lie within oblasts or krays and are under their jurisdiction, are Aga, Chukotka, Evenkia, Khantia-Mansia, Koryakia, Nenetsia, Permyakia, Taymyria, Ust’-Orda, and Yamalia. The autonomous region is the Jewish Autonomous Region. The divisions vary considerably in size: The republic of Sakha has a total area of more than 3 million sq km (1 million sq mi), while Ingushetia, the smallest unit (excluding Moscow and Saint Petersburg), has an area of only about 4,300 sq km (about 1,660 sq mi).

The republics, okrugs, and autonomous region are direct successors to ethnic units established during the Soviet period, with the exception of Chechnya and Ingushetia, which were combined as a single Chechen-Ingush autonomous republic. The Soviet government established the ethnic units to appease native, non-Russian nationalities, but political and economic factors caused migration into and out of the regions. Russians now make up the majority of the population in most areas.

The titles of the ethnic units have also changed considerably. During much of the Soviet period, Russia contained 16 autonomous republics, 5 autonomous oblasts, and 10 autonomous okrugs. In late 1990 the term autonomous was dropped from the names of the republics, and in July 1991 four of the five autonomous oblasts became republics. The Jewish Autonomous Oblast was the only autonomous oblast not elevated to the rank of a republic. Since 1990 the names of some of the units have been changed from Russian names to their names in the languages of the indigenous peoples.

The 1993 constitution grants the republics a greater degree of autonomy than the other administrative areas. The republics have special rights, such as the right to adopt their own anthems, flags, and limited constitutions. In general, republics pay fewer taxes to the central government, which has caused great indignation among the leaders of the oblasts and krays. All of the republics and some of the other administrative units have separate treaties with the central government. Therefore, the extent to which an administrative unit controls its own economic resources, receives subsidies, and retains locally raised taxes differs from area to area. Political and economic realities also influence an area’s relationship with the federal government. Powerful regional leaders are sometimes able to secure favorable deals from the central government. Regions that have important economic resources also sometimes receive special treatment. Moscow, under its exceptionally powerful mayor, Yuri Luzhkov, has frequently secured exemption from rules that the federal government has imposed on other regions.

In general, the power of administrative area leaders has increased greatly since the collapse of the USSR. They can no longer be dismissed by the central executive authorities as they could during the Soviet period. By late 1997 all local chief executive officers were democratically elected and therefore had independent sources of power and legitimacy. Furthermore, because they served as their area representatives in the Council of the Federation, all had a direct role in the central government. They also controlled considerable wealth and resources in alliance with local economic interests.

The relationship between the central government and the administrative units remains a source of conflict and uncertainty. Until this relationship is stabilized and clarified, it will be impossible to establish an effective fiscal and legal system that is uniform throughout Russia. This makes economic recovery difficult. On the other hand, the threat that the ethnically based republics might secede and cause the Russian Federation to disintegrate has decreased since 1991. Only Chechnya insisted on independence, and in 2000 it lay in ruins under military occupation after a devastating war with the central government.